Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development Essay Example for Free

Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development Essay I will begin my essay by outlining Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development and I will then go on to evaluate how far this help us to understand a client’s presenting issue. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development begins with the belief that human beings are purely driven by biology, in the form of the libido or sexual energy. The driving force of the libido is divided into five stages, he argues, and our early experiences during childhood are responsible for the development of a healthy personality, or if any individual were to experience trauma during these stages then it would result in disruption in the child’s personal development and the child may become stuck in this stage, resulting in neurosis. This five stages of sexual libido are: The Oral Stage – from birth to about 18 months – is where the child directs all its attention to the mouth in the form of sucking, eating and drinking. If stuck in this stage the client may still like to use their mouth a lot, resulting in the client presenting with overeating, drinking, smoking or talking The Anal Stage – from about 18 months to three years – is where the child directs their attention to the elimination of waste, and of the feelings experienced by the expelling of waste. This is also the stage where the child first experiences an element of control over themselves, as to where they excrete or and indeed whether or not they excrete their waste product. The child learns that he can use his bodily functions to elicit attention from his carer by excreting on the floor rather than in the potty. Clients stuck in the anal stage may be either anally retentive or expulsive in personality. Those that are anally retentive individuals are controlling and like to have everything in order – they may suffer from OCD and have quick outbursts of anger. Anally expulsive individuals tend to be untidy and disorganised. The Phallic Stage – from about three to five years – is where children become aware of their genital regions. This is the stage where the child starts to become aware of the differences between male and female genitalia, and their energy is spent undressing themselves, and perhaps others, in order to explore these differences. It is also the stage  of manipulating the genitals and the discovery of pleasure in doing so. It is during this stage that the Oedipus conflict arises; the belief that a boy has incestuous cravings for his mother and views his father as a rival for this affection. The boy also fears his father, as his father is bigger than him in all ways including his penis. Freud argued that the boy feels castration anxiety at this stage as a result of repressed sexual desire for his mother. If the boy has the correct parenting at this stage, then the boy identifies with the father and comes to have harmless affection for the mother. The Electra complex is the female counterpart. It is based on the view that each girl wants to possess her father and replace her mother. A phallic fixation can lead to an individual with a narcissistic, homosexual, egotistical or overly sexualised personality that may lead to serial marriage, polygamy or polyandry. The phallic fixation tends to use sex to discharge emotional tension and will often have sexual relationships that are superficial and lacking in love and affection The Latency Stage – from five years to adolescence. In this stage, sexual motivated needs subside as the child focuses their attention on developing other skills needed for their survival. A child stuck in this stage may have issues forming sexual relationships and have trouble expressing themselves sexually, leaving themselves and or their partners sexually unfulfilled. The Genital Stage – from adolescence to adulthood. During the onset of adolescence, the child moves from self-love or narcissistic love to diverting this love to others. It is argued by psychotherapists that are advocates of this theory that individuals disrupted during the ‘Genital stage’ may result in sexual disorders such as fetishes and paedophilia. According to Freud, only symptoms can be modified, and not the behaviour of the client – this can be done in two ways: 1. Lessening of the intensity of the unconscious urges, by bringing them to the consciousness or by strengthening the defences against them. An example of lessening the client’s behaviour is by encouraging a client to leave a job where aggressive urges were continually being aroused by an oppressive boss. 2. Alternatively the client can act out their urges in a more acceptable and symbolic way. An example being that anal urges can be expressed through pottery, as an alternative to faecal play. Feminists would argue that Freud’s theory concentrates on male sexual development, and provides little in understanding female sexuality. Freud’s work has also  been criticised for over emphasising sex drive and little else in order to assess a client’s presenting issue. Carl Jung and Fromm, two students of Freud, agreed with this statement, but used Freud’s work to develop their own theories, which I outline below. Carl Jung (1875 -1961) believed that that the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead generalised psychic energy. The purpose of this psychic energy was to motivate the individ ual in a number of ways, including spiritually, intellectually, and creatively. It was an individual’s source for seeking pleasure as well as reducing conflict. Jung placed greater emphasis on the unconscious than Freud; he argued that the psyche was composed of three components. Firstly, he believed that the ego is conscious, because people are aware of their own thoughts, memories and emotions. The unconscious mind, Jung believed, was split into two parts (the remaining two components): The personal unconscious, which is the same as Freud’s belief, in that it consists of repressed memories. Jung explained an important feature of the personal unconscious called ‘complexes’. A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and memories, which focus on a single concept. The more elements attached to the ‘complex’ the greater its influence on the individual. The second deeper level is the Collective consciousness. This level of unconscious is shared with other members of the human species, comprising of latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past (‘The form of the world into which a person is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image’ Jung, 1953). Jung called the ancestral memories and images ‘archetypes’. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behaviour. Important archetypes include: the persona, or our social mask, just like an actor in a play; Anima/Animus, or our male and female sides – this comes from living side by side with the opposite sex for centuries; the shadow, similar to Freud’s ID, comprised of our animal urges or survival and reproduction. Jung argued that the psychological development of both sexes was undermined as the development of western society has led to the devaluation of feminine qualities over the predominance of the persona, leading to insecurity. Jung agreed with Freud that a person’s past and childhood experiences determined future behaviour, but he also believed that we are shaped by our future aspirations too. Erich Fromm (1900 – 1980) differed with the Freudian  emphasis on unconscious drives. Fromm argues that a person’s drives were not purely biological – he believed that man had free choice to decide on whatever action he felt appropriate and therefore gui ded their own destiny. Fromm saw conflict arising within the individual, when they had to weigh up the freedom of choice with the fear of uncertainty, when making these decisions. As a sociologist and psychologist, his theories integrated both psychology and Marxist Historical Materialism. Fromm argued that each socioeconomic class fosters a particular character, governed by ideas and concepts that justify and maintain the socioeconomic system. Fromm believed that the unique character of human existence gives rises to eight basic needs. Firstly Unity, as human beings have lost their original oneness with nature, they need to relate in order to overcome their isolation. Secondly their relatedness with others, care, respect and knowledge. Thirdly humans need to transcend their own nature, as well as their passivity and randomness of existence, which can be accomplished either positively, by loving and creating, or negatively, through hatred and destruction. Fourthly the individual also requires a sense of rootedness or belonging, in order to gain a feeling of security, and sense of identity. Fifthly the sense of identity which is expressed non-productively as conformity to a group and productively as an individual. Sixthly is need is for orientation understanding the wor ld and our place in it. Seventhly is excitation and stimulation or actively striving for a goal rather than simply responding. Eighthly is effectiveness the need to feel accomplished. This Orientation can be achieved either through assimilation (relating to things) or socialisation (relating to people). Fromm identified several character Orientations in Western Society. Authoritarianism when an individual cannot come to terms with this freedom, he could avoid his responsibilities by withdrawing beneath the protection of someone or something else. Examples of this include God, a specific political leader of party, an institution of even one’s carer. Receptive Orientation this is common in a society which encourages exploitation of the individual, who then seeks solace in affection and related comforts, such as eating, where the individual can only take and not give. Exploitative Orientation the defence being the aggressive possession of goods, usually those of others. Examples being the plundering of goods in historical times, or in more modern times, those  nations that seek the territories and chattels of others. Productive Orientation which donates love and tolerance towards others, and an acceptance of their freedom, with the ability to use this orientation to their advantage, without harming others. Hoarding Orientation – the ‘I want – I need’ society, based on material wealth. If one owns objects, then the individual can be seen, at least in his eyes, as clever and powerful. These individuals are threatened by the outside world and cannot share. Marketing Orientation – this is people copying or being influenced by the media and advertising by wearing the latest fashions. Individual personal qualities are redundant over what looks good. The individual sees themselves as a commodity to be bought and sold. Fromm added two further states: Necrophilous character- attracted to death Biophilous character – drawn to life. According to Fromm, gaining independence from one’s parents leads to a profound sense of loneliness and isolation, which the individual attempts to escape by establishing some type of bond with society through social conformity and submission to authority. By relating both Jung and Fromm’s work to our clients, they have made us aware of the client’s wider world or heritage into which he or she is born. Jung would argue that a Muslim woman may have low self-esteem and isolate herself from others, but these presenting issues are more down to the client’s collective consciousness than their childhood. In this case, Jung helps us as therapist to understand that the client’s neurosis may not arise from bad parenting, but from something primal based upon evolution within the individual. Fromm’s Socio- economic theories also provide us with insight of the client’s wider world, and how neurosis can arise due to external economic forces that dr ive the client’s neurosis in an exploitative and materialistic society that values things over the human existence. Both would argue that it is our environment rather than biology that constrains us, in the form of society and culture. For Jung and Fromm, in order to understand the client’s presenting issue, we must also understand their culture and the way in which they relate to the economic society into which they are born. An alternative view to Freud’s psychosexual development is that of the Behaviourist approach. Behaviourists believe that what is learned can be unlearned. Skinner built upon the work  of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments (1927) and his use of dogs as subjects, and the Little Albert experiments of Watson and Rayner (1920). To further these experiments, Skinner (1938) designed a Puzzle box and, by using rats, he showed that by using both positive and negative reinforcements, he could change the behaviour of the rats, as their behaviour is affected by consequences. He called this Operant Conditioning to which he identified three responses: Neutral Operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour repeated. Reinforces: responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated – this can be ether positive or negative Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour. Skinner concluded that there was a Law of Effect, and that by using reinforcement, behaviour tends to be repeated, while behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out. As human beings, we often respond to verbal Operants by taking advice, listening to the warnings of others and by obeying given rules and laws. This helps us understand the development of children, as the feelings associated with behaviour are controlled by conditioning. If the child has been positively rewarded, then the child is more likely to repeat those behaviours happily and willingly, feeling that they are doing what they want to be doing. If on the other hand the child avoids these behaviours due to negative reinforcement, they will be inclined to feel that their freedoms are being repressed, resulting in feelings of negativity, which could led to depression or anxiety. The work of Skinner, Pavlov, Watson and Rayner has led to the development of different treatments, such as C ognitive behavioural therapy and talking therapy that will help you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave, commonly used to treat anxiety, depression and phobias but can be useful for other mental and physical health problems. In conclusion, Freud’s work on psychosexual development does help us in part to understand a client’s presenting issue, by understanding that their behaviour may very well stem from how their parents handled the child’s psychosexual development. By accepting this assertion, it also helps us to understand that what we, as society, view as very disturbing or deviant behaviour can arise from childhood trauma. This allows the therapist, and society, to be more  compassionate to such clients. An example of this is that Freud stated that homosexuality is neither a sinful nor a criminal act, but rather a condition that arose from childhood biological and psychological factors, and was just a ‘variation of the sexual function’, and because of this is could not be treated by punishment or therapy, but should just be accepted. Freud’s work, as already discussed, is limited in understanding the client’s total world, however we must understand th at Freud’s work was the first of its kind in understanding human psychological development, and was written at a time when most adults probably were sexually repressed, as well as viewing homosexuality as sinful. The later work of others, including Jung and Fromm, built upon his work, to help us understand the client’s presenting issue in a wider context. They widened our worldly view of the client by demonstrating how neurosis of the individual may also arise due to internal factors of the collective consciousness, arising from cultural and social heritage, or by external factors, such as how the client relates to the economic environment into which they are born. The work of the behaviourists also helps us to understand that any negative social conditioning also plays its part in understanding the client’s presenting issue. As a final note, we must remember that it is the job of the therapist to use the work of others as a tool to understanding the client’s own world in order to get enough understanding of the client’s perspective in relation to their own presenting issue. This understanding helps facilitate the client in coming to their own conclusions as to how best to tackle their own presenting issue, either by managing their condition from the Freudian perspective, or helping them change their own perspective and/or behaviour, as argued by the behaviourists. Bibliography What Freud Really Said – David Stafford-Clark (1996) 1935 – Freud’s letter response to a mother asking him to treat her homosexual son. (1935) Handbook of Individual Therapy – Edited by Windy Dryden (1990) Counselling for Toads – Robert De Board (1998) McLeod, S.A (2008)

Pilgrim Tourism To Holy Places

Pilgrim Tourism To Holy Places Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes movements for all purposes (1976, Tourism Society of England,1976) . Tourism has been described in various ways but may be thought of as the connection and experience arising out of the journeys and temporary stay of people travelling primarily for leisure and recreational purpose. Tourism is thus a multifaceted activity and geographically complex one as different services are sought and supplied at different stages from the origin to the destination. Tourism has emerged as one of the most important instruments to boost economic development in many of the countries across the globe as an engine for economic development, the earnings of foreign exchange, its contribution creation of employment. India has diverse culture and heritage in the North, it has the great Himalayas which gives tremendous opportunities for mountain tourism or adventure tourism. It provides great challenges and difficulties to mountaineers. In the Southern part of the country there is Indian Ocean which gives opportunities to beach tourism and attract large number of foreign and domestic tourists. In the North West there is Thar Desert with Aravalis mountains range. It is highly suitable for desert tourism and heritage tourism. In this way India have very rich natural resources like geographical and cultural diversity, forests, lakes, mountains, rivers and rivulets, sacred shrines, historic monuments and hospitable people, which are necessary for thriving tourism activity (Singh, 2002). Pilgrims with pilgrimage tourism is one of the fastest growing tourism in the world. Not only has it become an important component of the Indian life style (Adrian Ivakhiv, 2003 ) but it has had a profound impact on other peoples of the world and the environments in which they live. Pilgrim tourism to holy places (tirtha-yatra) is an ancient and continuing religious tradition of the Culture of Hindus. Here religion, as a cultural dimension, assumes the vital role and central focus of tourism in which the tourists (pilgrims) from all strata of the Hindus participate. In pilgrim tourism, the dimension of religion forms the basis of tourism of pilgrimage by offering the reward of purification of the soul and attainment of objectives related to the problems of routine life. Hindus from time immemorial were attracted to their numerous holy sites spread throughout India. Pilgrimage is thus a pan-human and pan Indian phenomenon, the meaning of which within the traditional structure of each religion, if not, within castes and communities. According to Skandapurana (a religious treatise), truth, forgiveness, control of senses, kindness to all living beings and simplicity is tirtha. Thus, tirtha yatra not only means physically visiting the holy places but implies mental a nd moral discipline as well. It has rightly said that following the Vedic period, the practice of religious tourism or pilgrimage seems to have gained increased popularity as evident from the great epic Mahabharata (Bhardwaj 1973: 5). The number of pilgrimage sites in India is extremely large but some primary pilgrimage sites include the four Dhams, the Seven Sacred cities and their primary temples, Ashtvinayakas, twelve Jyotirlings, Svaymbhu and Pancha Bhutta linga Temples, the Shakti Pithas, the Kumbha Mela sites, major Vaishnava sites, the Nava Graham Sthalas, the Seven Sacred Rivers, the four Muths of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, the Arupadaividu, Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliva, Jama Masjid, Dargah of Muinuddin Chishti, Hazrathbal Mosque, Haji Ali Mausoleum, Church of St. Catejan, Church of the Sacred Heart, Patna Sahib, Sachkhand Sahib, Hemkund Sahib, Little Mount and certain other places that do not fit into any of the categories listed here. In India all temples, Gurudwaras, Mosques and Churches are considered sacred places. As is evident from the list these sites are not related with one religion only and therefore, they attract people of different religions for pilgrimage. Further, many of such places are visited by pilgrims of various religions. It is worth mentioning that Uttarakhand has many important religious places which are quite popular at national level. Some of these places are well known at the international level as well. A brief description of of such places has been given as Haridwar, Rishikesh and Neelkanth in Uttaranchal. Tourism in Uttarakhand Uttarakhand became the 27th state of the Republic of India on November 9, 2000, which was carved out of Uttar Pradesh. It occupies an area of 51,125 sq km and a population of about __________ (__________ per sq km).The entire region is geographically important and is comprised of the two distinct parts i.e. eastern part (known as Kumaon) and western part (known as Garhwal). Uttarakhand is surrounded by a number of states like Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh and country like Nepal. Uttarakhand give a distinct sense of tourism practices such as, Adventure tourism activities, leisure activities, wild life national parks and eco tourism activities etc. It is also a home of several religious places belonging to the Hindus and the Sikhs like Kedarnath, Badrinath, Yamunotri, Gangotri, Lokpal and Hemkundsahib. To promote tourism Uttar Pradesh Parvatiya Vikas Nigam was established on 30th March 1971, with authorized capital of Rs. 2 crore, under Companies Act 1956. The main objective of this government body was the development of seven hilly districts i.e. Haridwar, Dehradun, Tihri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamouli and Rudraprayag. After this on 31st March 1976, two more Government companies i.e. Garhwal Mandal Vikas Nigam and Kumaon Mandal Vikas Nigam were established for the development of these regions. The main objectives of these apex bodies in the context of tourism were to work in the area of tourism development and provide basic tourism infrastructure facilities, to promote tourism, a state tourism policy was formulated in 2002 in which emphasis was given on three things i.e. development of eco-friendly tourism with the help of both the public and private sectors and local communities, promote tourism as a source of economic growth by employment and revenue generation, develop Uttarakhand as a leading tourist destination and place Uttarakhand on the tourist map. To promote the pace of tourism a Board named Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board was also established in 2002. This board is the supreme institute which gives suggestions to the government related to all tourism matters. Along with tourism this board also works as a regulatory and licensing authority. It has a negative impact on environment too. Degradation of forestland in and around the tourist places and garbage problems due to booming up of tea stalls and shops and as well as mass tourism are the major environmental problems. All above facts relating to the Uttarakhand reveal that the state government view tourism as a source of economic development and employment generation. They have shown their interest in infrastructure development on public-private participation. Further, efforts have been made to keep environmental aspects into consideration while developing tourism. If these steps implemented properly can lead to tourism growth in the above states. The presentation is written for tourism industry analysts and public officials, who would like to better understand, evaluate, or possibly reduce the negative impact of tourism in Uttarakhand. Haridwar Haridwar is regarded as most sacred destination among Hindu pilgrimages. A staggering number of pilgrims visited Haridwar every year. Haridwar is also a historic and cultural destination, older than many other ancient towns in the world, and is deeply rooted in the history and development of Hinduism and Indian culture from its earliest days. Haridwar meaning à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Gateway to Godà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚  is one of the seven holiest places of the Hindus, located on the banks of River Ganges. With Ujjain, Nasik and Allahabad, Haridwar forms the four important pilgrimage centers of India where Kumbh Mela is celebrated after every 3 years rotated over these 4 destinations. Har-ki-Pauri is the most holy place where thousands of devotees take a dip. Haridwar is located around 200 km north east of Delhi and 54 km south of Dehradun and is probably the most important gateway to Uttarakhand by rail and road. It would also be justifiable to describe it as one of the most important à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"pilgrimage tourismà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚  destinations in India.

Difference Between Gift Exchange and Market Transactions

Difference Between Gift Exchange and Market Transactions What is the difference between gift exchange and market transactions, and how do they both relate to gender relations? Introduction Karl Polanyi (1968), in his critique of the principles that underlie the formalist approach to economic analysis, attempted to define the tools by which the economies of ‘traditional’ societies could be analysed. Central to the substantivists’ claims was the understanding that the introduction of money destroyed indigenous social relations by introducing the notion of ‘equivalencies of value’ where none had previously existed. In this approach, the substantivists were following the legacy of Marcel Mauss,[1] who, in his seminal The Gift (1954), had argued that in contemporary and archaic societies as widespread as North America, Polynesia and Ancient Rome the assumptions of economic analysis, as used in explaining market transactions, were not relevant as these societies were gift economies. In this essay, I will first examine what Mauss meant by the term gift economies, before providing a contemporary example from the work of Usula Sharma (1984) who demonstrates how a gift exchange may be instrumental in the subordination of women. In the second section, I then look at market transactions and, by drawing on the work of Maria Mies (1998), I reveal the gendered nature of the market. In the conclusion, I problematise the division between ‘gift’ and ‘market’ economies, suggesting that both are weberian ‘ideal types’ and that neither is fully adequate to account for the complexity of both market transactions and gift exchanges, as both are deeply embedded in social relations and thus in relations of power. Gender and Gift Exchange Marcel Mauss argued that in contemporary western society we make a distinction between gift exchange and market transactions, and that in the west we presume the former to be free of obligations (Douglas in Mauss, 2000: vii). However, Mauss argued that the gift in fact entails an obligation to reciprocate[2] and thus creates ties between individuals and/ or groups. For Mauss, this form of economy differs from the ‘disinterested’ and ‘self-interested’ exchange of modern societies (Mauss, 2000: 75-6) and he believed that all economies were originally gift economies: ‘[t]he system that we propose to call the system of ‘total services’, from clan to clan [†¦] constitutes the most ancient system of economy and law [] forms the base from which the morality of the exchange-thorough-gift has flowed’ (Mauss, 2000: 70). An example of gift exchange is that of Northern India, and the Dowry system as described by Ursula Sharma (1984), compl ete with mutual obligations and the creation of lasting ties. Sharma describes a marriage system whereby the family of the bride must pay a dowry to the family of the groom, creating lasting ties between the two families, premised on the ability of the brides’ family to give: when they arrange the marriage of a son, parents do not just look forward to the dowry they will receive at the wedding. They look forward to the bride’s family’s general capacity to give (Sharma, 1984: 64). Although, if asked, most participants would describe the dowry as ‘freely given’ in fact behind the scenes ‘explicit bargaining’ takes place (Sharma, 1984: 64). In a society sharply divided, not only by gender but also by age and caste, control over what is given and what happens to these gifts once received is subject to division along lines of gender and age. Senior women in the household are responsible for ‘seeing that obligations are met and proper relations maintained’ (Sharma, 1984: 65), but when the gifts are of cash, then it is the senior men who are most in control (Sharma, 1984: 66). The ties created by the dowry may have severe consequences for the dis-empowered bride: ‘[d]owry favours and is favoured by a cultural ethos in which brides can be viewed as objects to be passed from one social group to another’, further, ‘in India the rapid inflation of dowries [†¦] has led to a situation in which brides are more controlled by than controllers of property’ (Sharma, 1984: 73). Finally, ‘dowry deaths’ may occur when the grooms’ family is disappointed with her dowry and hope to negotiate a better one for a second marriage (Sharma, 1984: 71). However, her powerlessness is eased by time, as she moves to being a ‘dowry-taker’ on the marriage of her sons (Sharma, 1984: 72). Thus, we can see that in the gift exchange lasting relationships are created, and that these relations are differentiated according to age and gender. Gender and Market Transactions In this section I examine the ‘market transaction’ through the work of Maria Mies (1998), revealing the gendered nature of the supposedly ‘disinterested’ market. In a market transaction, rather than the exchange of gifts which then creates lasting ties between people, it is presumed that in the exchange of commodities only a relationship between things is created: ‘the transactors are strangers in a state of reciprocal independence which persists after the transaction’ (Thomas, 1991: 14). Such an understanding is supported by our ‘common sense’ understandings of the different spheres of exchange: for example, Paul Bohannan (1968), in his discussion of the ‘spheres of exchange’ among the Tiv of Northern Nigeria, identifies a similar division in Tiv ideology between the ‘gift’ and ‘markets’. The former representing the formation and continuation of social relationships, while the later ‘cal ls up no long-term personal relationship, and which is therefore to be exploited to as great a degree as possible’ (Bohannan, 1968: 300); in this set of relationships, all items have an exchange equivalent. After all, when I exchange cash for a commodity I do not feel myself to be tied into a reciprocal relationship with the shopkeeper. However, Mies argues that rather than the formally free, atomistic individuals, engaged in disinterested exchange (Polanyi, 1968) of theoretical liberalism, and therefore of much economic thought, instead we find that actors are no less entwined in power relations than in the gift economies outlined above. Indeed, she argues that ‘the exploitative sexual division is the social paradigm upon which the international division of labour is built up’ (Mies, 1998: 4, emphasis added). First, many have debated the way in which the public sphere is dominated by men, but Mies argues that it is in fact the unpaid work of the housewife, of caring and nurturing within the domestic sphere (Mies, 1998: ix), or ‘women’s work’, that allows men to be free to enter the public realm (Mies, 1998: 31). Next, Mies argues that the ‘housewifization’ of labour[3] not only naturalizes women’s restriction to the private realm, but also means that her paid wor k is considered ‘only supplementary’ to that of her husband (Mies, 1998: ix): ‘[t]he process of proletarianization of the men was, therefore, accompanied by a process of housewifization of women’ (Mies, 1998: 69). Finally, Mies argues that third world women are valued by capitalism as producers due to their ‘nimble fingers’ and as they are ‘considered to be the most docile, manipulable labour force’ (Mies, 1998: 117): in short, due to ascribed gender stereotypes. The symbolic hierarchy of gender thus has material effects as women are placed in an economically vulnerable position and are concentrated in low paid, part-time employment: women and their children are the most economically disadvantaged group across the globe. Further, women are locked into an international division of labour whereby the ‘third world women produce not what they need, but what others [first world women] can buy’ (Mies, 1998: 118, original emp hasis). Thomson echoes this argument: ‘[e]veryone is now tied up in a historical network of global relations [] we are all caught up in international relations of production and appropriation which stretch across the spaces separating us’ (Thomas, 1991: 8-9) and this international relation of production is gendered. Conclusion Nicholas Thomas rejects Mauss’ argument that the economies of Melanesia and Polynesia can be regarded as ‘gift economies’, which are thus opposed to the market economies of Europe. He argues that this division misses the way that these ‘traditional’ economies are in fact deeply entangled with the global capitalist trade (Thomas, 1991: 4): ‘a wider range of evidence from indigenous Oceanic societies suggests that there is a broad continuum between systems in which it is possible to substitute only people for people, or food for food, and those in which a wide range of expansive conversions are permitted’ (Thomas, 1991: 4). Divisions, such as Mauss makes, between ‘gift exchange’ and ‘market transactions’ are part of the reification of difference between ‘us’ and ‘them’ (Thomas, 1991: 34), further, ‘the grand polarities almost always turn out to be implausible’ (Thomas, 1991: 2 7). Thomas argues that by scrutinising our concepts via the lens of gender we can reveal the theoretical flaws or weaknesses that we might otherwise miss (Thomas, 1991: 2) For Polanyi, the economic sphere as defined by the discipline of economics is based on a conflation of two distinct meanings: the ‘substantive’ and ‘formal’. ‘The formal meaning of economic derives from the logical character of the means-ends relationship [†¦] it refers to a definite situation of choice’ (Polanyi, 1968: 122), whereas in the substantive definition ‘the economy here is embodied in institutions that cause individual choices to give rise to interdependent movements that constitute the economic process’ (Polanyi, 1968: 125). In short, formal economics is based on the notion of formally free individuals, making rational economic decisions and which create no lasting ties, whereas substantive economics views all economies, whether regarded as gift economies or those based on market transaction, as embedded in social relations. Thomas concurs: ‘[e]xchange is always, in the first instance, a political process, o ne in which wider relationships are expressed’ (Thomas, 1991: 7) for exchange relationships are always differentiated by power (Thomas, 1991: 22), by race, class, gender and age. Thomas would not have us abandon the distinction between gift and commodity entirely (Thomas, 1991: 29), perhaps it would be better to view them as points along a continuum, with each ‘ideal’ type at the opposing ends but the majority of actual cases lying somewhere in between; further it is necessary that we recognise the coexistence of both types (Thomas, 1991: 33). Whether or not the introduction of money destroyed indigenous social relations, by introducing the ‘equivalencies of value’, as the substantavists claimed, the ties that are created by contemporary commodity exchange may be less evident, but Maria Mies reminds us that nonetheless the global division of labour links third world producers to first world consumers in an asymmetrical power relationship that makes a lie of the supposed disinterestedness of market transactions. Bibliography Bohannan, Paul (1968) ‘Some Principles of Exchange and Investment among the Tiv’, Economic Anthropology: Readings in Theory and Analysis, LeClair Schneider (Eds.), London: Holt, Rinehart Winston, pp 122 – 143. Levi-Strauss, Claude (1969 [1949]) ‘Nature and Culture’ ‘The Problem of Incest’, The Elementary Structure of Kinship, London: Eyre Spottiswoode, pp. 3-25. Mauss, Marcel (2000 [1954]) The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, New York: W. W. Norton. Mies, Maria (1998 [1986]) Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour, London: Zed Books. Polanyi, Karl (1968 [1957]) ‘The Economy as Instituted Process’, in Economic Anthropology: Readings in Theory and Analysis, LeClair Schneider (Eds.), London: Holt, Rinehart Winston, Inc. pp 122 – 143. Sharma, Ursula (1984) ‘Dowry in North India: Its Consequences for Women’, Women and Property: Women as Property, Hirschon, R. (Ed.), London: Croom Helm, pp. 62-74. Thomas, Nicholas (1991) ‘Introduction’ and ‘Objects, Exchange, Anthropology’ in Entangled Objects: Exchange, Materialism and Colonialism in the Pacific, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 1-34. 1 Footnotes [1] As well as that of Bronislaw Malinowski, who in his influential (1922) Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea, (London: Routledge) closely described the Kula exchange of the Trobriand Islanders. [2] Levi Straus, following Mauss, argued that the exchange of women (exogamy) provided the basis for ties between different groups (Levi Strauss, 1969: 14) via the incest taboo (Levi Strauss, 1969: 9-10) and thus provided the basis for culture (Levi Strauss, 1969: 24-5). [3] The defining of women as homemakers, and then relying on this definition to characterise their work outside of the home (Mies, 1998).

Heroes: From Ninja Turtles to Jesus :: Heroes of Society

Heroes: From Ninja Turtles to Jesus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Heroes are important in life we’ve always had them and always will. They’re our role models, we attempt to be resembling them. Society looks up to these heroes for many reasons, it could be that they’re cool or have style, because they could fly or have supernatural powers, because of the way they make a person feel, the confidence they have, or even because a majority likes him and wants to be him a person may want to go with the flow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All heroes in society have similarities to each other. All heroes put other people or objects before themselves. They might go through many things like humiliation, inopportunity, poverty or many other things they might undergo or give up. Heroes have similarities but also differences, some heroes could be nonhuman, or fictious, religious, or with super powers. They range going from anything like Ninja Turtles to a powerful savior as Jesus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since we’ve had heroes and idols since we were children, our aspect of them changes as we mature. A hero shifts from a very fictious character to an everyday person in the real world. Children fall into the idea that heroes are only heroes if they have superpowers, can fly or something of that sort. But it’s because that’s the idea that’s given to them and admire. As our minds mature we realize the superpowers aren’t only supernatural, but can be everyday activities people do for a living; patrolling the streets, fighting crime, saving peoples in house fires, helping a student when they need an extra push etc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Only people that have the maturity to understand what a true real life hero is consider a wide range of people as heroes; Firefighters, police, parents, teachers and even students that stay out of gangs and in school can be considered as heroes.

Intellectual Property: The Patents :: Intellectual Property Patent Papers

Intellectual Property: The Patents Introduction While an ethical analysis in intellectual property may not be as interesting as the ethical analysis in human genetics, such as in human cloning, patents are the most relevant in the area of high technology, which is the most important industry in the Silicon Valley and arguably, becoming one of the most powerful engines in the growth of the U.S. economy. In fact, intellectual property, a once very sleepy and very boring subject, is one of the hottest topics of conversations today in the high technology industry. Background The growing importance of patents has fueled the tremendous growth of new patents being issued annually in the past several years and currently accelerating even faster. Many concerns have been raised about new patent ideas such as new business methods and other abstract concepts. Two examples of these business method patents are the â€Å"One-Click† checkout and payment Internet technology patented by Amazon.com, an Internet commerce company, and the â€Å"Reverse Auction† Internet technology patented by Priceline.com, an Internet based travel agent. Many argue that business methods are discoveries and not true inventions. â€Å"We discover what before existed, though to us unknown; we invent what did not exist before.†1 Patents have become one of the greatest competitive assets to ensure the future of the business and as business tools to map trends and convergences, innovates new strategies and capabilities of partners and competitors, and improve all business units in the corporation. Patents have become critical in determining the winners and losers in business competition. Business Issues Patents have also become strategic assets and competitive weapon of enormous value. Patents have become the bargaining chips for companies in negotiations with other companies to gain competitive advantage by gaining access to needed technologies by cross-licensing its patents with partners and competitors. As businesses began to discover, the power of patents can no longer be ignored in business competitions as the importance of new ideas and innovations have overshadowed market position and tangible assets such as real estate and raw materials to achieve competitive goals. Patents have become critical in the business battlefield  ­Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬â€ the â€Å"smart bombs† of tomorrow’s business wars2 — in addition to the traditional sales increase to expand market share. Patents are the tools that every company needs in the business battlefield to capture and defend its market share, stay ahead of the competition, increase revenues, and to be successful in their respective business segments.

Operation Barbarossa Essay

Operation Barbarossa, the code name given to Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, would come to be considered one of Nazi Germany’s greatest follies in the Second World War, and would play a monumental role in bringing an end to Hitler’s regime just a few years later. Though the operation itself lasted less than six months it resulted in four years of harsh fighting on the Eastern Front, marked by an enormous casualty toll for both the Russians and the Germans and countless battles fought in the cruel conditions of Russian winter. All of this despite the fact that both countries had engaged in a mutual non-aggression pack two short years earlier. In 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a series of agreements regarding how both countries would split the territory separating them and share the resources therein. Signing of the pact created strong political and economic ties between the two nations, at least on the surface. Historians, however, argue that the pact was doomed to fail long before it was even signed, as Hitler had long harbored a disgust for the Soviet Union’s Slavic peoples, which he viewed as sub-human. Couple this racial prejudice with the extremely different political ideologies governing both countries and it becomes clear that the relationship between Germany and the Soviet Union was merely one of temporary convenience. Despite the volatile nature of the German-Soviet relationship, it still struck many as incomprehensible why Hitler should choose to invade Russia in 1941, with war already raging in the west. One can only judge that Hitler, in a misplaced display of ego, believed the west to already be won, with France effectively crushed and England standing as the only viable opponent on that front, struggling hopelessly to maintain a foothold on the European mainland. Believing the western front was theirs, Germany sought to expand her influence and complete her domination of Europe by conquering the resource-rich eastern countries- including the powerhouse of the Soviet Union. Preparations for the invasion began in April of ’41, as Germany began to secretly amass troops on her eastern borders. The plan involved a three-pronged Blitzkreig attack that would simultaneously strike northern Russia with the object of taking Leningrad, while a second group struck toward Moscow and a third took a southern route through the Ukraine. By doing this, Hitler believed that the Russians would be caught completely off guard and would be unable to mount an effective defense in so many places at once. Hitler’s plan, however, contained a number of fatal flaws. Firstly, he greatly underestimated the numbers and strength of the Soviet military, which had effectively doubled its number of troops, artillery pieces and aircraft since the outbreak of war in western Europe. Though not all of this strength was situated in the western part of Russia, where Hitler planned to strike, significant advances had also been made in Soviet infrastructure (most significantly, their railroad system) such as allowed for more efficient movement of troops and supplies, and therefore faster mobilization. Also, the German superiority in armor, which had served them so well in their western blitzkrieg was lost to them here- Soviet tanks, though less technologically advanced at this point in the war, actually outnumbered German tanks approximately four-to-one. The one advantage inarguably held by the Germans was troop quality. The German army was well trained, well equipped and led by experienced and educated officers. The Soviet army, in contrast, were untested by battle and overwhelming led by incompetent officers, many of whom had been given their commissions in exchange for political favors. The vast majority of Soviet officers had less than one year of experience, as many of the older and more experienced commanders had been executed or imprisoned during Stalin’s â€Å"Great Purge† between 1936 and 1938. When Operation Barbarossa began in the pre-dawn hours of June 22nd, 1941, Germany initially made fantastic gains. Approximately three million German soldiers, supported by armor and the Luftwaffe swarmed across the border, advancing more than 200 miles in the next 5 days. The only solid resistance they were met with in the first few days of the attack came in the south, where Soviet commanders reacted quickly and were able to organize an effective defense. The central and northern arms of the German advance, however, met little resistance and charged ahead at full speed- a factor that would later return to haunt them. Armored divisions of the German army actually advanced too quickly, putting them well ahead of the infantry divisions meant to support them. This forced Hitler to call the Panzer divisions to a halt for nearly a week to allow their accompanying infantry troops time to catch up- a week that was used by the Soviets to amass troops ahead of the German advance and fortify target cities such as Stalingrad. By the time the order was given to resume the advance, heavy rainstorms struck which greatly slowed the progress of German tanks attempting to slog down muddy roads. With their advance slowed and the element of surprise expired, the Germans faced ever-strengthening resistance from the Soviet army. In a decision that would prove disastrous, Hitler ordered the central arm of the attack to call-off its march for Moscow and redeploy to the north and south, strengthening the other two prongs of the invasion in hopes of quickly capturing the rich oil fields in the south and the Soviet stronghold of Leningrad in the north. This had mixed results, as the southern wing of the attack was eventually successful in capturing Kiev, and with it an approximate 600,000 Soviet troops, but the advance in the north stalled as heavy resistance was met in Leningrad. The southern wing, after completing its advance through the Ukraine, resumed the march toward Moscow, ultimately coming within 15 miles of the Soviet capital before the Soviets’ greatest ally came to their aid- the harsh Russian winter. As had been the case for Napoleon more than a hundred years earlier, the Russian winter proved disastrous to the unprepared German troops. Expecting a quick victory, the German army had not bothered to supply its men with winter uniforms, and as the snows set in many found themselves facing temperatures well below zero wearing little more than light cotton summer clothing. Frostbite, pneumonia and other side effects of the horrendous cold mercilessly ate away at the German divisions, which were already weakened by months of hard fighting. To make matters worse the cold prevented use of German tanks in many instances, which froze solid in the fields, and high winter winds and snow flurries grounded the Luftwaffe, preventing air support. The Soviets in contrast, well accustomed and prepared for the hardships of winter, took the opportunity to launch a massive counter attack which robbed the Germans of most of their earlier gains, pushing them back over 200 miles and removing the pressure on Moscow. Never again would the Germans make it so deep into Russian territory, though the war continued on and countless more men would die in the years to come. The failure of Operation Barbarossa proved disastrous to Hitler’s Reich, which lost huge numbers of valuable and experienced troops and vast amounts of material that would have proved invaluable to them later in the war. They also awoke the military beast that was Soviet Russia and forced themselves to actively wage war on two fronts, a strain that would eventually prove too much for Germany as Allied efforts redoubled in the west with the entrance of the United States into the conflict.

Ipv4 to Ipv6 Transition

I P v 4 TO IP v 6 TRANSITION – UPDATE 2011 An overview of the new Internet a ddressing protocol, its implications for b usiness and government, and Telstra’s a pproach to the transition. WHITE PAPER September 2011 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PAGE 3 WHAT IS IPv6? PAGE 4 IPv4 ADDRESS RUN OUT PAGE 5 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IPv4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT? PAGE 6 GOVERNMENT MANDATES PAGE 8 INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IPv6 PAGE 10 WHAT DOES THE TRANSITION MEAN FOR BUSINESS? PAGE 13 WHAT IS TELSTRA’S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION? PAGE 14 WHAT SHOULD BUSINESSES DO NOW?PAGE 16 CONCLUSION PAGE 18 APPENDIX – IP ADDRESSING PAGE 19 REFERENCES PAGE 21 WHY TELSTRA? PAGE 22 FIGURES & TABLES FIGURE 1 IPv6 ECOSYSTEM PAGE 6 FIGURE 2 DUAL-STACK SUPPORTS BOTH PROTOCOLS IN PARALLEL WITHIN ONE NETWORK PAGE 7 FIGURE 3 EXAMPLE OF A DUAL-STACK ACCESS TO THE INTERNET PAGE 14 TABLE 1 IP ADDRESS HEADER FORMATS PAGE 19 TABLE 2 INDIVIDUAL ADDRESSES AND NOTATION PAGE 20 TABLE 3 UNIQUE LOCAL ADDRESS R ANGE PAGE 20 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY IPv4 is the dominant addressing protocol used on the Internet and most private networks today.With the current exponential growth in Internet users worldwide, combined with the limited address range of IPv4, the number of available public IPv4 addresses remaining is very limited. IPv6 is the next-generation Internet protocol that will replace IPv4, providing a vastly expanded address space. This white paper provides an update on the current industry status of IPv6, how the IPv4 to IPv6 transition will affect some organisations, and Telstra’s perspective on the transition. Internet Transition IPv4, the dominant addressing protocol, is rapidly running out of capacity and will be replaced by IPv6The protocol that governs communication on the Internet (and most intranets) today is called Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4. The popularity of the Internet has caused a shortage of public IPv4 addresses and they are quickly running out, with the glo bal registry of IPv4 addresses from the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) exhausted in February 2011 and the Asia-Pacific regional registry in April 2011I. Other Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) are expected to be exhausted between 2012 and 2014II. Once this happens, no more IPv4 addresses will be allocated to Internet service providers (ISPs).Individual ISP run-out will depend upon how well each ISP manages its address pools compared to the rate of each ISP’s subscriber growth. The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is a popular issue and one which the industry will spend more time managing in the coming years. The transition is complex and will require IPv6 support by an end-to-end industry ecosystem. The ecosystem includes customer premise equipment, modems/home gateways, network systems, management (OSS/BSS, tools), content and applications. Telstra’s Approach Telstra’s approach is based on the dual-stack solution, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-existTelstra will ensure that customers can migrate to IPv6 at their own pace, with minimal impact to services Telstra has been planning for the IPv6 transition for a number of years. We have a defined transition strategy and a well-advanced IPv6 implementation program. Our strategy for IPv6 introduction is based on the dual-stack solution, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-exist until the transition to IPv6 is complete. This approach will make sure that the transition occurs with minimal impact to customers. Customers will not be forced to move to IPv6 overnight – they can deploy and migrate to IPv6 as they become ready.Telstra is already testing dual-stack technology on a number of key networks and products to seamlessly introduce IPv6. Similar to service providers, businesses face a challenge in undertaking the complex transition of their IPv4 internal ecosystems without impacting services. Just as Telstra has done, it is advised that every online or IT-ba sed business should prepare an IPv4 to IPv6 transition strategy. Telstra will provide timely information and updates on our own program of work to assist customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage their transition. 3 WHAT IS IP v 6?IPv6 was designed during the mid-1990s, when the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) realised that IPv4 address size constraints would soon be a major impediment to the continued growth of the Internet. IPv6 was first known as the Next Generation Internet Protocol (IPng) during development within the IETF. Since 1998, it has officially been known as IPv6. In the transition to IPv6, both IPv6 and IPv4 will co-exist until IPv6 eventually replaces IPv4. The most obvious difference between IPv6 and IPv4 is the vastly expanded IP address space available The most obvious difference between IPv6 and IPv4 is the address size.IPv6 addresses comprise 128 bits, whereas IPv4 addresses comprise 32 bits. This difference results in a huge expansion in available IP address space: ? I Pv4: 2 32 a ddresses equals 4. 3 billion addresses (less than the global human p opulation of 4. 7 billion) ? I Pv6: 2 128 a ddresses. Because the last 64 bits are used to allocate a ddresses within a subnet, that leaves 2 64, which equals 18 billion billion s ubnet addresses. IPv6 is not backwardly compatible with IPv4 Whilst IPv6 performs the same address function as IPv4, IPv6 is not backwardly compatible with IPv4. Therefore, an IP data session must use either IPv4 or IPv6 end-to-end.IPv6 and IPv4 can be used together with translation mechanisms such as Application Layer Gateways when the applications are known and supported end-to end. 4 IP v 4 ADDRESS RUN OUT The global top-level registration body, IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), exhausted its supply of available IPv4 addresses in February 2011. APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre) is the Regional Internet Registry which allocates IP addresses in the Asia-Pacific region. U nfortunately for Australia, APNIC effectively ran out of addresses in April 2011. The Asia-Pacific is also the highest growth region for IP address llocation. Telstra and any other ISP in the Asia-Pacific region are now only eligible for a total allocation of 1024 further addresses from APNIC. There will be no further large allocations of IPv4 addresses for Asia-Pacific ISPs Because no further large allocations of IPv4 addresses are available, the ability of Asia-Pacific ISPs to allocate IPv4 addresses for new customers depends on the number of addresses they already hold, the rate at which they are using them for new services, and the ISP’s capability to adopt address translation technologies, which may reduce their rate of address demand.These factors will be different for each ISP, so it is likely that ISPs across the industry will run out of IPv4 addresses across a wide timeframe – some may run out within only a couple of years, others may be able to delay that exh austion well into the future. 5 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IP v 4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT? Internal enterprise networks using private IPv4 addresses will not be affected IPv4 and IPv6 will co-exist on the Internet for many years Firstly, internal enterprise networks using private IPv4 addresses will not be impacted.Nor will the run-out impact existing IPv4 networks and IPv4 based services already allocated IPv4 addresses — they will continue to operate normally. Secondly, IPv4 and IPv6 will co-exist in the Internet for many years, quite likely for decades. Unlike Y2K, there is no cut-off date when IPv4 use will cease and the world will fully migrate to IPv6. The plan is for gradual transition: different regions and industry players will move to IPv6 at different rates. Consequently, end users will need the capability to access both IPv4 and IPv6 content and services on the Internet. This dual apability may be inherent in the end users’ equipment, or may be provided transparently by t heir or the content publishers’ ISPs. To enable this dual protocol access during the transition period, technology solutions were developed in conjunction with the development of the IPv6 protocol in the mid-1990s. Three categories of transition technologies exist: ? Tunnelling – encapsulates one protocol within another (e. g. IPv6 in IPv4, IPv4 in IPv6) ? Protocol Translation – translates packets between protocols (e. g. IPv6 to IPv4) ? Dual-stack – support both protocols in parallel within one network. Telstra’s dual-stack path nables both protocols to co-exist on our networks Telstra has chosen the dual-stack path, enabling both protocols on its networks. The use of dual stack will ensure our customers have the current functionality of IPv4 always available to them even while they start deploying IPv6 in their systems. The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is a known issue which the industry will have to manage over the coming years. The transition w ill take time as it will require IPv6 support by an industry end-to-end eco-system including CPE, modems/home gateways, networks, systems (OSS/BSS, tools), content and applications.Figure 1: IPv6 Ecosystem Systems & tools Carrier/ ISP Client apps Consumer electronics Modems Operating systems Mobile handsets Public IPv6 Content/Apps Global Internet Network vendors Content/Apps Systems & tools Servers IPv6 is the accepted solution, however, moving the entire ecosystem to IPv6 will take many years Source: Telstra 6 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IP v 4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT? Telstra continually monitors industry developments with regard to the other transition technologies and we may choose to apply other methods where appropriate. Co-existence of IPv4 and IPv6Dual-stack (IPv6/IPv4) remains the accepted industry direction for the introduction of IPv6. Tunnelling has sometimes been used by early IPv6 adopters where native IPv6 has not been available end-to-end. IPv4 to IPv6 protocol translation mechanis ms may also be applied in the future in certain circumstances. Figure 2: Dual-stack supports both protocols in parallel within one network Applications TCP/UDP IPv6 IPv4 Physical Layer Dual Stack Backbone Applications TCP/UDP IPv6 IPv4 Physical Layer 7 GOVERNMENT MANDATES Some Governments have set mandates to ensure a well-managed transition rom IPv4 to IPv6 before IPv4 addresses run out The importance of continued Internet growth has been recognised by many governments due to its critical role for areas such as e-commerce, healthcare services and public information dissemination. This has led some governments to set IPv6 technology mandates to ensure a well-managed transition from IPv4 to IPv6 prior to the run-out of IPv4 addresses. The smooth and ordered adoption of these technologies will ensure continued Internet connectivity for all of their citizens. Initially targeted at enterprises, institutions and government elated Internet services, IPv6 mandates are now being issued for consumer broadband services The technology mandates have been primarily targeted at enterprises, institutions and departments that provide governments with their Internet connectivity services. Only recently IPv6 mandates for consumer broadband services have been issued. North America In August 2005, the US OMB (Office of Management and Budgets) issued Memorandum M 05 22: Transition Planning for Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6). This sets the US Federal Agencies a hard deadline for compliance to IPv6 on their core IP networks.This mandate led many major US Service Providers (e. g. AT&T, Sprint, Verizon, QWest, NTT America) to develop government and enterprise solutions to allow agencies to buy IPv6 products and services to meet their core connectivity requirements. In practice, all of the agencies met the mandate because they were able to demonstrate that their backbone networks were capable of carrying IPv6 packets by the agreed deadline. However, there was no need to actually im plement IPv6-based services. A draft roadmap for IPv6 adoption by the US Government has recently been prepared. EuropeThe European Commission communicated an IPv6 action plan in May 2008. The target was to have 25% of European customers accessing the Internet using IPv6 by 2010, which challenges all players (ISPs, content providers, customer premise equipment vendors, governments and organisations) to work towards this target. Asia Many Asian countries, including China, Japan and Korea have been early adopters of IPv6 due to government mandates. For example: ? C hinese Government Strategy: C hina Next Generation Internet (CNGI) sets o ut a five year plan (2006-2010) for the adoption of IPv6 Korean Government Strategy: T he Korean Government has the strategic IPv6 Promotion Plan II, which sets a vision of deploying IPv6 for the public sector. 8 GOVERNMENT MANDATES Australia The AGIMO (Australian Government Information Management Office) has set the following timeframes for IPv6 adopt ion within the Australian Government and its departments: ? Preparation Jan 2008 – December 2009 ? Transition Jan 2010 – December 2011 ? Implementation Jan 2012 – December 2012. The Australian Department of Defence has also mandated a move to IPv6. 9INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IP v 6 Industry has been slow to adopt IPv6 since few commercial drivers exist Across the globe, the industry has been slow to adopt IPv6, since very few commercial drivers for migration have existed at present. By its very nature, the Internet involves a huge number of disparate groups and thus a coordinated approach is difficult to achieve. The lack of a commercial imperative is due to a ‘chicken and egg’ situation: why support IPv6 in the equipment if there are no IPv6 services, and why create an IPv6 service if nobody can use it?This situation is now changing with the occurrence of the global IPv4 exhaustion. Nevertheless, while many parts of the industry are now supporting IPv 6, others are lagging behind. The following is a brief analysis of the readiness of key industry sectors: Network Equipment Generally, network equipment vendors already provide IPv6 dual-stack support In the main, network equipment vendors already provide IPv6 support (dual-stack) for the core and edge of networks. Key vendors have been hardware and softwareready for several years, with equipment deployed in small-scale trials.Even though IPv6 capability has existed in most network routing equipment for some time, it has often not been enabled for use. Network control path functions like DNS, DHCP and RADIUS, however, are not yet uniformly supported for IPv4/IPv6 dual-stack across all vendors. These remain among the ‘work in progress’ issues for the industry. Internet Infrastructure Global IPv6 interconnectivity is now growing rapidly Global IPv6 Backbones As IPv4 and IPv6 do not interwork, it is essential there is global IPv6 interconnectivity similar to the IPv4 Inter net today. The global network of IPv6 interconnectivity is now growing rapidly.We expect there will be a substantial interconnected Australian IPv6 backbone between many, if not most, ISPs by the end of 2011. Domain Name Servers IPv6 devices will resolve Internet domain names into IP addresses using IPv6 entirely A critical step along the path to IPv6 was implemented on 4 February 2008, when ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) assigned IPv6 addresses and provided IPv6 connectivity to six of the Internet’s root domain name servers (DNS). Similar enhancements are being made to other top-level DNS (e. g. for . com and . org). The APNIC servers for the . u domain also have IPv6 connectivity. These enhancements to DNS will allow IPv6 devices to resolve Internet domain names into IP addresses entirely using IPv6. Service Providers To connect to the global IPv6 Internet, customers will need to use a service provider that supports IPv6 and provides the require d connectivity through to the global IPv6 backbones. 10 INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IP v 6 Enterprise Virtual Private Networks (VPN) Service providers in the US have begun offering dual-stack VPN services largely to support federal agencies in response to US Government mandates.Telstra’s dualstack IPv6 VPN product capabilities are in an advanced stage of development. Broadband There are still few consumer broadband IPv6 offerings from ISPs, but it is expected there will be an increasing number in the Australian market during 2011-12. Customer Environment In general, few modem gateways and other consumer on-premise equipment currently support IPv6 Consumer Modems and IP Devices In general, very few modem gateways and other CPE appliances in use by consumers currently support IPv6. The main exception includes some high-end PDA mobile phones running Windows Mobile, and some CPE made for specific markets such as Japan.In the vast majority of cases, these IPv4-only devices will not be economically upgradeable to support IPv6. This is because the device is not upgradeable in any way, or because additional resources (e. g. flash memory or RAM) are required to support IPv6. IPv6 capability from many consumer gateway vendors is only starting to be released during 2011. The long lifespan of broadband modem gateways means that many consumers will not have IPv6 connectivity capability for several years unless they opt to replace their modem with a dual-stack capable gateway. Mobile HandsetsDual-stack IPv4/IPV6 capability is expected to become available on selected new mobile handsets during 2011/12. Carriers will need to support IPv6 in their networks for handset use of IPv6 to be possible. Operating Systems Most, if not all, mainstream consumer and business operating systems available now have IPv6/IPv4 dual stack capability. However, legacy systems with either no or limited IPv6 capability (such as Windows XP) are expected to be in widespread use for several years yet . 11 INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IP v 6 Applications and Content ApplicationsMany applications will work when used with IPv6. Others will need to be checked and modified Applications have to be specifically written to take advantage of IPv4/IPv6 dual stack capabilities in the underlying operating system. In many cases, applications will work correctly when used over an IPv6 network. Others will need to be checked and modified to meet the dual-stack requirements and take advantage of IPv4/IPv6 dualstack capabilities built in to most recent underlying operating systems. Applications can be divided into the following major categories: ?S erver applications: Servers typically include web servers, database s ervers and mail servers, but can also include others such as those used for multiplayer online gaming. The applications running on these servers respond to requests from client applications which are carried across I P networks ? C lient applications: End users run client applications whi ch initiate requests to server applications across IP networks (the web browser being the most common example) ? Peer-to-peer applications: In this case the end user application acts as both a c lient and a server and can communicate directly with other users across I P networks.Most applications interface at the IP socket layer and won’t be affected whether the transport is IPv4 or IPv6. However, some applications may have been originally written in a way that ties them to IPv4, and these will have to be modified. Some examples include: ? Use of hard coded IPv4 addresses ? IP address data structures that only cater for IPv4 size addresses ? U ser interfaces that display an IP address, or allow an IP address to be e ntered only in IPv4 format. Many applications, including web browsers, already support dual-stack function. Others are subject to the planned timing of upgrades by the application developer.Ideally, applications should be agnostic to the use of IPv4 or IPv6. An ap plication that supports dual-stack will usually give preference to IPv6 if it is available, otherwise it will fall back to using IPv4. Content Providers Most major Internet content providers have yet to move to a dual-stack architecture Most major Internet content providers are yet to make the move to a dual-stack architecture. Some have established specific IPv6-only versions of their site to enable IPv6 access to users who have IPv6 connectivity, and who deliberately choose to use IPv6 (e. . ipv6. google. com and www. v6. facebook. com). Many Internet content providers are beginning to plan for a dual-stack architecture. This was exhibited when many content providers participated in World IPv6 Day (held on 8 June 2011) to trial IPv6 at a global level. 12 W HAT DOES THE TRANSITION MEAN FOR BUSINESS? Multinational enterprises and those that deal with government departments are most likely to be impacted by government mandates. This will drive the need to support IPv6 (e. g. Australi an Government departments implementing IPv6 in 2012).The IPv4 public address run-out will mostly affect businesses in their external connections Public IPv4 address shortages will have minimal impact on Enterprise VPNs due to the prevailing use of private IPv4 addressing. The IPv4 public address run-out will mostly affect businesses in their external connections to consumers and the broader Internet. Each business needs to consider whether to deliver IPv6 based services to consumers who prefer to use IPv6. Businesses must ensure an IPv6 communication path from the enterprise edge to where IPv6 supported applications are hostedConsumers will move to dual-stack CPE configured with an IPv6 address as well as an IPv4 address (either public or private) in order to access both IPv4 and IPv6 content. Businesses that host applications accessible via the Internet will need to cater for consumers with IPv4 or IPv6 public addresses. Since each protocol needs to work endto-end, for businesses t he transition does not end with deployment of dual-stack devices at the enterprise edge. It also requires enterprise network design changes to make the communication path IPv6-capable from the enterprise edge to where IPv6 supported applications are hosted.Businesses face a similar challenge to service providers, such as Telstra, in making the IP addressing transition. Transitioning to IPv6 requires the full ecosystem to move (i. e. network equipment, modems, consumer devices, operating systems, applications, content servers, IT systems, etc). Therefore, the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 will be a large and complex task that will require significant coordination across the full spectrum of players involved in end-to-end IP services. 13 WHAT IS TELSTRA’S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION? Telstra has been planning for this transition for a number of years.We have a defined transition strategy and a well-advanced IPv6 implementation program. Telstra has prepared for the transition thro ugh a clear strategy and implementation program Our strategy for IPv6 introduction is based on the dual-stack approach, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-exist until the transition to IPv6 is complete. This approach will make sure that the transition occurs with minimal impact on customers – they are not forced to move to IPv6 overnight and can deploy and migrate to IPv6 as they become ready.Telstra is already testing a number of key networks and products to seamlessly introduce IPv6 across our services. Timing for implementation in each product will depend on business drivers and equipment availability (e. g. CPE). It covers services across Telstra Internet Direct (TID), Enterprise networks, Consumer Broadband, Mobiles and Telstra’s global networks. Figure 3: Example of a dual-stack access to the Internet Customer Service Provider LNS DNS Apps, Content & Systems Global Internet Content Providers IPv4 content/apps ADSL Modem Cable CMTS Modem ServiceProvider P oP Domestic Backbone Global Internet Backbones Dual-stack content/apps Wireless IPv6 content/ apps LNS Large installed base of IPv4-only CPE Dual-Stack Outside Service Provider Control Largely installed base of IPv4-only content/apps Outside Service Provider Control Dual-Stack enables a smooth transition, supporting both IPv6 and IPv4 Source: Telstra TID and IP-VPN Services The benefits of dual-stack technology for TID and IP-VPN customers are as follows: ? Continued service availability even as IPv4 addresses run out ? Smooth transition to IPv6 at own pace N ative IPv6 connectivity which provides better performance than IPv6 t unnels ? Essentially unlimited Internet addressing ? Leverages the Telstra Next IP ® network. 14 WHAT IS TELSTRA’S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION? BigPond Broadband Most consumer broadband customers will be more interested in the content and applications they use, rather than which IP addressing protocol is being used. Nevertheless: ? For many, the trans ition to IPv6 will occur smoothly and transparently as e ach of the components of the end-to-end service moves to dual-stack ( e. g. odems, PCs, content) ? T he industry is expecting that Internet content and applications will be d ual-stack or IPv4-only for a long time to come ? I t is unlikely that any significant content on the Internet will be available t hrough IPv6-only for many years yet. Mobiles including Telstra Mobile Broadband ? I nitial availability of IPv6-capable mobile devices is not expected u ntil 2011/12 ? I n the future there may be developments in self-contained mobile solutions, w hich will also drive IPv6 use (e. g. Telemetry and machine-to-machine s olutions).Applications and Content Telstra applications and content will transition to be offered over IPv6 (to achieve end-to-end IPv6) as well as IPv4. Telstra’s Global Networks Telstra’s global networks operated by Telstra International Group adopted the same business approach as Telstra’s g uideline for the IPv4 to IPv6 transition. Key features include: ? D ual-stack approach to seamlessly support the co-existence of IPv4 and I Pv6 IP routing on global IP networks, including the MPLS-VPN platform and G lobal Internet / IP Transit platform N o hard cut-over for customers and continuing support for customer IPv4 a ddress-based IP routing on Telstra global networks in the coming years ? C ontinue IPv4 and IPv6 support for IP network’s auxiliary services such as D NS services on global Internet platform, looking glass on online port etc ? F rom FY 2011/12, Telstra International Group will start leasing IPv6 addresses to customers needing to connect to Telstra’s global IP networks, with limited I Pv4 Address also available ? Native IPv6 Address IP routing on core network is on the road map ?Telstra is committed to work with global network partners for native I Pv6 traffic peering and/or interconnection for both private and public I P networks. 15 WHAT SHOULD B USINESSES DO NOW? Businesses can begin to prepare for their own IP addressing transition through the following steps: 1. Conduct an IPv6 readiness assessment ? Network hardware ? Servers, PCs (e. g. operating systems) ? Network management and security ? Applications ? IT systems ? Organisational capability (IPv6 skills) ? Understand coexistence implications (performance, resources). 2. Prepare an IP addressing strategy Develop a high-level view of transition approach for the business. 3. Develop an end-to-end program view ? Network, IT, devices, applications, etc ? Processes to minimise impacts ? Communication of the IPv6 strategy within the business ? Maintain network security through the transition to IPv6 ? Work with vendors, system integrators and service providers to define d etail and align timings (e. g. link hardware upgrades to lifecycle p rocesses to minimise costs) ? Analyse transition costs and develop a transition budget. 4. Formulate an Implementation Plan ? Identify d ependencies and major milestones Use phased approach based on priorities and timings. 5. Progress Implementation ? Work in close coordination and consultation with network provider ? Telstra commits to providing timely information and updates on its program o f work to assist customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage t heir transition. 16 WHAT SHOULD BUSINESSES DO NOW? Leverage our Experience and Best Practice Telstra can assist and support customers in their transition to IPv6 through our Professional Services and Consulting Services. The services we provide include: ? Consulting: Planning consultation, including business level investigation and analysis – Conduct a Communications Strategy plan update – Readiness assessments and check lists – Total ecosystem roadmap development (Not necessarily Telstra specific) – Vendor management and CPE – VoIP / other providers / web sites, etc ? Design and Architecture: – Network design – CPE programming remote or onsite (future) ? Project Management: – Transition planning – Seamless transition – Staged transition planning process, achieved via: – Workshops – Customised design – Implementation planning Telstra can provide overall project management to guide a customer t hrough the transition process. 17 CONCLUSION The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is a known issue which the industry will have to manage over the coming years. The transition will take time as it will require IPv6 to be supported by an end-to-end industry ecosystem including CPE, modems/home gateways, networks, systems (OSS/BSS, tools), content and applications. Telstra has been planning for this transition for a number of years. We have a defined transition strategy and a well-advanced IPv6 implementation program.Our strategy for IPv6 introduction is based on the dual-stack approach, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-exist until the transition to IPv6 is complete. This approach will make sure that the transition occurs with minimal impact on customers – customers are not forced to move to IPv6 overnight and can deploy and migrate to IPv6 as they become ready. Telstra is already testing a number of key networks and products to seamlessly introduce IPv6. Businesses face a similar challenge to service providers in undertaking a complex transition of their IP ecosystem without impacting services.It is advisable that businesses start preparing their IPv4 to IPv6 transition strategies. Telstra will provide timely information and updates on our program of work to assist customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage their transition. 18 APPENDIX 1 – IP ADDRESSING IP Address Header Formats Table1 0 16 Ver HL TOS Total Length Identification TTL 32 Flag Protocol Fragmet Offset Header Checksum Source Address Destination Address Options Padding IPv4 Header 0 16 Ver 32 Traf. Class Flow Label Payload Length Nx t Hdr Hop Limit Source Address Destination AddressIPv6 Header Address Ranges Both IPv6 and IPv4 address ranges are often referred to in CIDR (Classless InterDomain Routing) notation, indicating how many of the bits in the range are used to identify the network prefix while the remaining bits identify subnets and hosts. For example, in 62. 0. 0. 0/8 or (62/8), the ‘/8’ indicates that the first 8 bits in the range are used for the common prefix and the remaining 24 bits are used for the host address within that network. 19 APPENDIX 1 – IP ADDRESSING Individual Addresses and Notation Table2 Address FamilyWritten as Example IPv4 Dotted Decimal Notation 144. 135. 19. 10 (four decimal ranges written to represent each byte of address space) IPv6 Hexadecimal notation (eight hexadecimal ranges written to represent two bytes, separated by colons) IPv6 (short-hand) Hexadecimal notation 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000: 8a2e:0370:7334 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 (eight hexadecima l ranges with zeros removed) Private Addressing In IPv4, four specific address ranges were allocated for use in private networks (e. g. within an enterprise or home). The ranges are: ? 10. 0. 0. /8 — quite often used by large enterprise networks or internally by ISPs ? 172. 16. 0. 0/12 — often used to number enterprise or ISP backbone networks ? 192. 168. 0. 0/16 — often used in small office/home office (SOHO) applications ? 169. 254. 0. 0/24 — used for link-local applications. These private addresses have no meaning on the public Internet. If external connectivity is required by nodes addressed privately, Network Address Translation (NAT) is used to translate the first three of these address ranges into public addresses when accessing the broader Internet.IPv6 also has a range of addresses identified for local use known as the Unique Local Address range FC00::/7 (defined by RFC4193). In IPv4, when an interface is assigned a link-local address, we assume that the device is only connected to a local network. However, the practice of assigning multiple identifiers to interfaces is expected in IPv6 and therefore, all interfaces maintain a link-local address and additional IPv6 addresses. Table 3: Unique Local Address Range 0 78 FC00::/7 1 48 Global ID 64 Site Subnets Interface Identifier With regard to NAT, industry IPv6 addressing practices are still developing.Although there is a hope that significant use of IPv6 to IPv6 network address translation will be avoided, it is not yet clear as to whether enterprises will use public IPv6 space (derived from a registry), provider IPv6 space (granted from an ISP), or a local addressing scheme together with IPv6 NAT. 20 REFERENCES I The remaining allocations by the Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre are now rationed to a maximum of 1024 addresses per member under their latest policies – see â€Å"Policies for IPv4 address space management in the Asia Pacific region†, http:// www. apnic. et/policy/add-manage-policy. II â€Å"IPv4 Address Report† http://ipv4. potaroo. net has the latest exhaustion estimates of the other regional registries 1 Global IPv6 Strategies – From Business Analysis to Operational Planning by Patrick Grossetete, Ciprian Popoviclu, Fred Wettling, Cisco Press, June 2008 2 Deploying IPv6 Networks by Ciprian Popoviclu, Patrick Grossetete, Eric LeviAbegnoli, Cisco Press, February 2006 21 Why Telstra? Telstra provides network services and solutions to more than 200 of the world’s top 500 companies. They rely on us to do business across 240 countries nd territories and to enable greater productivity, efficiency and growth. Telstra solutions offer the best of all worlds – skilled people and a rich portfolio of services delivered on our world-class Telstra Next IP ® network and Next G ® network. To ensure reliable performance, they’re monitored and maintained from our dedicated centres using advanced ma nagement and operational systems. And they’re backed by Telstra Enterprise-grade Customer Service ® and one of Australia’s largest and most qualified field and technical workforce. IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS P LEASE CONTACT YOURT ELSTRA ACCOUNT EXECUTIVE V ISIT T ELSTRA. COM/ENTERPRISE/IPV6 C ALL 1 300 TELSTRA  © 2011 Telstra Corporation Limited. All rights reserved. This work is copyright. The Copyright Act 1968 permits fair dealing for study, research, news reporting, criticism or review. Selected passages, tables or diagrams may be reproduced for such purposes provided acknowledgement of the source is included. Permission for more extensive reproduction must be obtained from Telstra. â„ ¢ Trade mark of Telstra Corporation Limited.  ® Registered trademark of Telstra Corporation Limited ABN 33 051 775 556.